Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, 5th Edition

Chapter 1 – Learning: Introduction, Issues, Historical Perspectives

Learning Defined

Learning Theory and Research

            Functions of theory

            Conducting research

Methods of Assessing Learning

            Direct observations

            Written responses

            Oral responses

            Ratings by others

            Self-reports

Precursors of Modern Learning Theories

            Learning theory and philosophy

            Beginnings of the psychological study of learning

            Structuralism and functionalism

Critical Issues in the Study of Learning

            Which processes affect learning?

            What is the role of memory?

            What is the role of motivation?

            How does transfer occur?

            Which processes are involved in self-regulation?

            What are the implications for instruction?

Relation of Learning and Instruction

            Historical perspective

            Instructional commonalities

            Integration of theory and practice

Three Learning Scenarios

            Kathy Stone’s third-grade class

            Jim Marshall’s U. S. History class

            Gina Brown’s educational psychology class

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 2 – Conditioning Theories

Connectionism

            Trial-and-error learning

            Laws of exercise and effect

            Other principles

            Revisions to Thorndike’s theory

            Instructional applications

Classical Conditioning

            Basic processes

            Informational variables

            Biological influences

            Conditioned emotional reactions

Watson’s Behaviorism

            Basic processes

            Little Albert experiment

Contiguous Conditioning

            Acts and movements

            Associative strength

            Rewards and punishments

            Habit formation and change

Operant Conditioning

            Conceptual framework

            Basic processes

            Behavioral change

            Behavior modification

            Verbal behavior

Self-regulation

            Self-monitoring

            Self-instruction

            Self-reinforcement

Instructional Applications

            Behavioral objectives

            Programmed instruction

            Contingency contracts

            Keller Plan

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 3 – Social Cognitive Theory

Conceptual Framework for Learning

Reciprocal interactions

Enactive and vicarious learning

Learning and performance

Modeling Processes

            Theories of imitation

            Functions of modeling

            Cognitive skill learning

            Rule learning

Influences on Learning and Performance

            Developmental status of learners

            Model prestige and competence

            Vicarious consequences to models

Goals and Expectations

            Goals

            Outcome expectations

Self-Efficacy

            Conceptual overview

            Self-efficacy in achievement situations

            Models and self-efficacy

            Motor skills

            Instructional self-efficacy

            Health and therapeutic activities

Self-Regulation

            Conceptual framework

            Social cognitive processes

            Cyclical nature of self-regulation

Instructional Applications

            Models

            Self-efficacy

            Self-regulation

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 4 – Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Cognitive Information Processing System

Assumptions

Two-store (dual-memory) model

Critique

Levels of processing

Activation level

Attention

            Theories of attention

            Attention and learning

            Attention and reading

Perception

            Gestalt theory

            Sensory registers

            Long term memory comparisons

Two-Store Memory Model

            Verbal learning

            Short-term (working) memory

            Long-term memory

            Influences on encoding

Long-Term Memory: Storage

            Propositions

            Storage of declarative knowledge

            Storage of procedural knowledge

Production Systems and Connectionist Models

            Production systems

            Connectionist models

Long-Term Memory: Retrieval

            Retrieval strategies

            Encoding specificity

            Retrieval of declarative knowledge

            Retrieval of procedural knowledge

Long-Term Memory: Forgetting

            Verbal learning

            Information processing

Mental Imagery

            Representation of spatial information

            Imagery in LTM

            Individual differences

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 5 – Cognitive Learning Processes

Conditional Knowledge and Metacognition

            Conditional knowledge

            Metacognition and learning

            Variables influencing metacognition

            Metacognition and behavior

Concept Learning

            The nature of concepts

            Concept attainment

            Teaching of concepts

            Motivational processes

Problem Solving

            Problem solving defined

            Historical influences

            Heuristics

            Information processing model

            Problem-solving strategies

            Problem solving and learning

            Experts and novices

            Implications for instruction

Transfer

            Historical views

            Activation of knowledge in memory

            Types of transfer

            Strategy transfer

            Instructional applications

Self-Regulation and Motivation

            Model of self-regulation

            Learning strategies

            Critique of strategy instruction

            Academic studying

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 6 – Constructivist Theory

Constructivist Assumptions and Perspectives

            Overview

            Perspectives

            Situated cognition

            Contributions and applications

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

            Background

            Basic principles

            Zone of Proximal Development

            Applications

            Critique

Social Processes and Private Speech

            Private speech

            Verbalization and achievement

            Socially mediated learning

Motivation

            Contextual factors

            Implicit theories

            Teachers’ expectations

Self-Regulation

            Sociocultural influences

            Implicit theories of self-regulation

Constructivist Learning Environments

            Key features

            APA Learner-Centered Principles

            Instructional methods

            Reflective teaching

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 7 – Cognition and Instruction

Discovery Learning

            The process of discovery

            Teaching for discovery

Meaningful Reception Learning

            Meaningfulness and expository teaching

            Advance organizers

Conditions of Learning

            Learning outcomes

            Learning events

            Learning hierarchies

            Phases of learning

Models of Instruction

            Learning time

            Mastery learning

            Inquiry teaching

            Instruction with worked examples

            Cognitive load

            Peer-assisted learning

Research on Teaching

            Teacher planning and decision making

            Instructional practices

Learner Characteristics

            Aptitude-treatment interactions

            Cognitive styles

            Learners’ resource allocations

            Adapting instruction

Technology and Instruction

            Functions of technology

            Technological applications

            Future directions

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 8 – Development and Learning

Beginnings of the Scientific Study of Development

            Historical foundations

            Philosophical foundations

            The Child Study Movement

Perspectives on Human Development

            Issues relevant to learning

            Types of developmental theories

            Structural theories

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

            Developmental processes

            Implications for instruction

Bruner’s Theory of Cognitive Growth

            Cognitive growth and knowledge representation

            Spiral curriculum

Contemporary Themes in Development and Learning

            Developmental changes

            Developmentally appropriate instruction

            Transitions in schooling

Familial Influences

            SES

            Home environment

            Parental involvement

Motivation and Development

            Developmental changes

            Implications

Development and Instruction

            Case’s model of instruction

            Teacher-student interactions

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 9 – Neuroscience of Learning

Organization and Structures

            Neural organization

            Brain structures

            Localization and interconnections

            Brain research methods

Neurophysiology of Learning

            Information processing system

            Memory networks

            Language learning

Brain Development

            Influential factors

            Phases of development

            Critical periods

            Language development

Motivation and Emotions

            Motivation

            Emotions

Implications for Teaching and Learning

            Relevance of brain research

            Educational issues

            Brain-based educational practices

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 10 – Content-Area Learning

Skill Acquisition

            General and specific skills

            Novice-to-Expert Research Methodology

Language Comprehension

            Components of comprehension

            Parsing

            Utilization

Reading

            Decoding

            Comprehension

Writing

            Composition Processes

            Reviewing Processes

            Motivation and self-regulation

Mathematics

            Computation skills

            Problem-solving skills

            Constructivism

            Individual differences

Science

            Expert-novice differences

            Reasoning

            Constructivism and scientific beliefs

Social Studies

            History

            Geography

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 11 – Motivation

Model of Motivated Learning

            Pretask

            During task

            Posttask

Historical Perspectives

            Drive theory

            Conditioning theory

            Cognitive consistency theory

            Humanistic theory

Achievement Motivation

            Expectancy-value theory

            Familial influences

            Fear of success

            Contemporary model of achievement motivation

            Self-worth theory

            Task and ego involvement

            Achievement motivation training

Attribution Theory

            Locus of control

            Naïve analysis of action

            Attribution theory of achievement

            Attribution change programs

Social Cognitive Theory

            Goals and expectations

            Social comparison

Goal Theory

            Goal orientations

            Conceptions of ability

            Implications for teaching

Perceptions of Control

            Control beliefs

            Learned helplessness

            Students with learning problems

Self-Concept

            Dimensions and development

            Self-concept and learning

Intrinsic motivation

            Theoretical perspectives

            Overjustification and reward

Motivation and Self-Regulation

            Volition

            Values

            Self-schemas

            Help seeking

Summary

Further Reading

 

Chapter 12 – Next Steps

Learning Questions

            Which processes affect learning?

            What is the role of memory?

            What is the role of motivation?

            How does transfer occur?

            Which processes are involved in self-regulation?

            What are the implications for instruction

Learning Theories

            Conditioning

            Social cognitive

            Cognitive information processing

            Constructivist

Conclusion

 

Glossary

References

Author Index

Subject Index